Abstract

The expanding use of ternary lithium-ion batteries has raised growing concerns about their potential ecological and health risks in recent years. This study aimed to investigate the effects and underlying mechanisms of the ternary lithium-ion battery cathode material lithium nickel-cobalt-manganese oxide (NCM523) on planarian locomotor activity, growth, and regeneration, providing insight into the environmental and ecological hazards. Freshwater planarians ( Dugesia japonica ) were exposed to NCM523-shrimp paste mixtures via feeding. The median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), locomotor activity, growth, regeneration capacity, oxidative stress markers, and expression levels of related genes were evaluated. Exposure to NCM523 induced significant toxicity in planarians, with a 72-h LC 50 of 401.5 μg mg⁻¹ (95% CI: 387.7 to 418.1). Elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, together with reduced glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) activities, indicated that NCM523 exposure triggered oxidative stress in a concentration-dependent manner. Concurrently, planarians exhibited reduced locomotor activity and marked delays in both growth and regeneration as NCM523 concentrations increased. These physiological impairments were accompanied by upregulation of regeneration-associated genes, including Dj-GATA4/5/6, Dj-PCNA , and Dj-nlg . In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that NCM523 adversely affects planarian locomotor activity, growth, and regeneration, providing crucial in vivo evidence for assessing the potential ecotoxicological risks of ternary lithium-ion battery cathode materials.