Abstract

Background Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive and lethal malignancy. Metabolic reprogramming dynamically remodels the tumor microenvironment (TME) and drives HCC progression. This study investigated the mechanism through which metabolic reprogramming remodels the TME in HCC. Methods HCC patient transcriptome data were subjected to bioinformatics analysis to identify differentially expressed genes and immune infiltration status. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to determine the correlation between succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit A (SDHA) expression and M2 macrophage infiltration. SDHA-knockdown or SDHA-overexpressing HCC cells were used for in vitro experiments, including co-culturing, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Western blotting assay, functional assays, and subcutaneous tumor model mice were used to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying succinate-mediated HCC cell-macrophage interactions in the TME. Results Higher infiltration of M2 macrophages correlated with worse prognosis in HCC patients. SDHA was downregulated in HCC tumor tissues and showed a negative correlation with M2 macrophage infiltration. SDHA knockdown promoted M2 macrophage polarization, whereas SDHA overexpression reversed this effect. Mechanistically, SDHA deficiency in HCC cells induced succinate accumulation, which promoted M2 macrophage polarization by activating the G protein-coupled receptor 91 (GPR91)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway. Concurrently, succinate stimulation enhanced mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in M2 macrophages, thereby promoting HCC progression. Serum succinate levels were elevated in HCC patients. The receiver operating characteristic curve analysis indicated that serum succinate is a promising diagnostic marker for HCC (area under the curve = 0.815). Conclusion SDHA deficiency leads to succinate accumulation, which promotes M2 macrophage polarization through t